Sunday School Review: Basic History of the Protestant Reformation, Part 1 - Martin Luther

Introduction

“Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason, I cannot and will not recant. My conscience is captive to the Word of God. Here I stand, I can do no other. So help me God. Amen.” These words, spoken by Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms in 1521, were not just a defense of his own beliefs but a battle cry for a movement that would reshape the world. Today, we embark on a journey into the Protestant Reformation, exploring the courage, conviction, and theological depth that propelled this historical shift. In this first session, we will trace the life of Martin Luther—his early years, his theological awakening, and his radical break from the Roman Catholic Church.

The Early Life of Martin Luther

Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483, in the small town of Eisleben, Germany. His parents, Hans and Margaretha Luther, were hardworking people, his father a miner with ambitious plans for his son to enter law. Luther’s education was rigorous, and he proved to be an excellent student, eventually enrolling at the University of Erfurt to study law, fulfilling his father’s aspirations.

But Luther’s life took an unexpected turn in the summer of 1505. Traveling back to university, he was caught in a violent thunderstorm. As lightning struck dangerously close, Luther, filled with fear, cried out, “St. Anne, help me! I will become a monk!” True to his desperate vow, he abandoned his legal studies and entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt, a decision that left his father deeply disappointed. In the monastery, Luther pursued holiness with a fervent intensity, committing himself to prayer, fasting, and rigorous self-discipline, but his soul remained in turmoil. Despite confessing for hours on end, he could not shake his deep sense of unworthiness before God.

Johann von Staupitz, his confessor and mentor, saw Luther’s despair and urged him to turn to the Scriptures. This encouragement would prove transformational. As Luther studied the Bible, particularly the book of Romans, he began to see that righteousness was not something to be achieved by human effort but a gift from God received through faith.

The Road to Reformation: The 95 Theses

By the early 16th century, the Catholic Church had become entangled in financial corruption, exemplified by the sale of indulgences—certificates promising reduction of punishment in purgatory. Pope Leo X authorized these indulgences to finance St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, aggressively marketed them with slogans such as, “As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs.”

Luther was appalled. He saw indulgences not only as a theological error but as a grievous exploitation of the faithful. Outraged, he composed ninety-five statements—known as the 95 Theses—challenging the practice of indulgences and the authority of the pope. On October 31, 1517, Luther posted these theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, an act intended to spark academic debate. But thanks to the newly invented printing press, his arguments spread rapidly across Germany, igniting a firestorm of controversy.

The Conflict with Rome and the Diet of Worms

Luther’s ideas quickly gained traction, drawing both supporters and fierce opposition. His teachings on sola fide—faith alone—and sola scriptura—Scripture alone—directly contradicted the authority of the Church, which held that tradition and papal authority carried equal weight. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a papal bull condemning Luther’s writings, demanding that he recant or face excommunication. Luther’s response was defiant—he publicly burned the papal bull.

This act of defiance led to his summons before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Before a council of Church and state officials, Luther was ordered to renounce his teachings. Given the chance to save himself from punishment, he instead stood firm. “Here I stand, I can do no other,” he declared. For his refusal to recant, Luther was declared an outlaw, meaning that anyone could legally kill him without consequence. To protect him, his allies arranged for his abduction and hid him in Wartburg Castle.

The Impact and Legacy of Martin Luther

During his time in Wartburg Castle, Martin Luther took one of his most significant steps—translating the New Testament into German. For the first time, ordinary people could read the Scriptures in their own language rather than relying on the Latin text controlled by the Church. This single act revolutionized religious life in Germany and beyond, paving the way for future Bible translations in various languages. It democratized the faith, giving laypeople direct access to the Word of God and inspiring a legacy of biblical literacy that continues to shape Protestantism today.

Luther’s theology also led to sweeping changes in worship. He rejected the idea of mandatory clerical celibacy, affirming marriage for priests and thus reshaping the pastoral vocation. He reintroduced congregational singing in church services, encouraging worship in the common tongue, which invigorated communal worship with a sense of participation and intimacy. His writings formed the backbone of what would become Lutheran doctrine, inspiring other Reformers like John Calvin and John Knox to carry the Reformation into Switzerland, Scotland, and beyond. Luther’s emphasis on justification by faith alone and his insistence on Sola Scriptura laid the theological foundation for Protestantism, profoundly impacting Western Christianity.

Yet, to give a fair and honest account of Martin Luther’s legacy, we must also acknowledge his flaws and failures. Like all historical figures, Luther was a complex individual whose influence was marked by both triumph and tragedy. One of the most troubling aspects of his legacy was his harsh stance during the Peasants' Rebellion (1524–1525). Initially sympathetic to the peasants' grievances against oppressive landowners, Luther turned vehemently against them when their protests escalated into violence. In his tract "Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants," Luther urged the ruling princes to crush the rebellion with force, contributing to the brutal suppression of tens of thousands of peasants. This response not only strained his relationship with the common people but also revealed his conservative social views, particularly his insistence on civil obedience.

More grievously, Luther’s writings later in life included virulent antisemitic rhetoric. In his infamous treatise, "On the Jews and Their Lies," Luther employed harsh language, advocating for the destruction of synagogues and the expulsion of Jews from German lands. These writings stand in stark contrast to the Gospel of grace and the doctrine of justification by faith alone that he so passionately defended. It is crucial to categorically condemn his antisemitism as utterly incongruent with the Gospel he preached—a Gospel that affirms the dignity and worth of all people as bearers of God’s image. While his antisemitic views were not unique in his time, their vehemence and subsequent misuse by later movements, including Nazi propaganda, underscore the damaging impact they had on history. Christians today must unequivocally reject these views, recognizing them as a tragic and sinful failure of his theology and character.

Luther’s theological journey was not static; it evolved over time. Early in his career, he was a devout Augustinian monk, fervently committed to the practices and doctrines of the Catholic Church. His spiritual struggle with guilt and his quest for assurance led him to rediscover the doctrine of Justification by Faith Alone through his study of Romans 1:17, profoundly shaping his theology. Yet, even after his initial break from Rome, Luther continued to develop his thought. For example, his understanding of the Lord’s Supper, known as sacramental union, differed from other Reformers. While he rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, he maintained that Christ was truly present “in, with, and under” the elements of bread and wine—a position that set him apart from Zwingli and Calvin.

Luther’s theology also became more polemical and hardened over time, particularly as he faced opposition from both the Roman Catholic Church and other Reformers. His early zeal for dialogue gave way to sharp denunciations, reflecting the tumultuous and often dangerous context of the Reformation. In his later years, Luther’s tone grew more combative, and his writings more controversial, revealing a man embattled, yet unwavering in his convictions.

In evaluating Luther’s legacy, it is essential to approach him with historical nuance and theological discernment. He was a flawed, fallible man—brilliant and bold, yet capable of grave error. His courage in standing against ecclesiastical corruption, his commitment to Scripture, and his recovery of the Gospel of grace continue to inspire and shape Protestant Christianity. At the same time, his moral failures and theological blind spots serve as sobering reminders of human fallibility. Ultimately, Luther’s life and legacy point us to the One he sought to exalt—Jesus Christ alone, the author and finisher of our faith.

Conclusion

Martin Luther never sought to divide the Church—he sought to call it back to biblical truth. But his unwavering commitment to Scripture and faith alone sparked a movement that altered the course of history. His story is one of bold conviction and deep dependence on the Word of God.

As we reflect on Luther’s legacy, we must ask ourselves: Do we stand firm in our faith as he did? Are we committed to the authority of Scripture? The Protestant Reformation was not just a historical event—it was a call to remain faithful to God’s truth. In our next session, we will explore the theological pillars that sustained this movement—the Five Solas. These foundational truths continue to shape the Church today, reminding us that salvation is by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone, according to Scripture alone, to the glory of God alone.